Motivation+and+Human+Resource+Development

===I have worked in Human Resources in a Higher Education setting for over 10 years. Human Resource Development (HRD) focuses on developing adults' overall competency level. This may be job-related (computer skills) or less tangible (ability to deal with diffcult situations). In my experience, various aspects of the five theories from this course play a role in HRD and employee motivation. Below, through a series of materials, I sketch the ways in which the various theories operate in the world of Human Resource Development.===

**Goal Theory**
====**Goal theory holds that goal-setting is a key type of intricsic motivation. It is expressed in mastery and performance. These aspects of goal theory are exemplified in the case studies below. **====

__Case Study__

Mastery approach: Ashlie's goal in Cobalt Plus IT training class is to become fluent in the programming language because she is interested in advancing her knowledge and becoming able to program at a higher level.

Mastery avoid: Ashlie's goal in Cobalt Plus IT training class is to learn enough to satisfy her supervisor that she is trying. She does not want to get poorly evaluated in this year’s performance review process.

Performance approach: Tony’s reason for taking the new PowerPoint class is to create slides that have better graphics and transitions than anyone else in his department.

Performance avoid: Tony’s goal in his Power Point class is to not let on that he has very little knowledge about creating presentations.

====One of the places where I have seen attribution theory play out most dramatically has been in the performance evaluation arena. This is the case particularly when someone has received a less-than-optimal annual performance review. Some individuals choose to accept the feedback, learn and grow from it. Others seek to attribute it to something and, therefore, to rationalize and understand it. Particularly in low-trust environments, where employees do not feel the process if fair and equitable, this can happen. For example, these individuals might find that there are environmental (poor leadership/unfair systems) or personal (not a "favorite"/not in line with unfair management) conditions which contribute to the poor evaluation. They may also assign causes (poor performance was due to low morale caused by poor management) to their negative review. Some may see these things as beyond their control, which is turn has psychological consequences. For example, this individual may feel that because of hte environmental factors somewhere, it is impossible for them to succeed, so they cease trying to improve. This, in turn, has behavioral consequences, such as tardiness, poor work product, etc. In this area of human resource development, attribution theory is a very useful lense through which to analyze employee behavior.====

Expectancy-Value Theory
====**//While Vroom's Expectancy Theory is not exactly the same as Expectancy-Value Theory, the two are closely related. Expectancy theory holds that an individual employee's motivation is related to the extent to which they believe a certain activity will have a certain, desired result. For example, employees may be motivated to reach a particular level of performance or output because they believe they will receive a certain financial reward (for example, a bonus).//** **//Expectancy and Expectancy-Value are similar in that they both propose that motivation is tied to how much individuals believe that a certain outcome will be achieved.//** **//More on Expectancy Theory://**==== >
 * Expectancy Theory** proposes that a person will decide to behave or act in a certain way because they are motivated to select a specific behavior over other behaviors due to what they expect the result of that selected behavior will be. In essence, the motivation of the behavior selection is determined by the desirability of the outcome. However, at the core of the theory is the cognitive process of how an individual processes the different motivational elements. This is done before making the ultimate choice. The outcome is not the sole determining factor in making the decision of how to behave. Expectancy theory is about the mental processes regarding choice, or choosing. It explains the processes that an individual undergoes to make choices. In the study of [|organizational behavior], expectancy theory is a [|motivation] theory first proposed by [|Victor Vroom] of the [|Yale School of Management]. This theory emphasizes the needs for organizations to relate rewards directly to performance and to ensure that the rewards provided are those rewards deserved and wanted by the recipients. (See References for full citation.)
 * Victor H. Vroom** (1964) defines motivation as a process governing choices among alternative forms of voluntary activities, a process controlled by the individual. The individual makes choices based on estimates of how well the expected results of a given behavior are going to match up with or eventually lead to the desired results. Motivation is a product of the individual’s expectancy that a certain effort will lead to the intended performance, the instrumentality of this performance to achieving a certain result, and the desirability of this result for the individual, known as //valence//.[|[][|3][|]] (See Reference for full citation.)

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
====Intrinsic motivation holds that individuals are motivated my internal factors such as personal interest, curiosity, and the like. Extrinsic motivation is motivation by means of external forces, such as pay raises and performance bonuses. The following humorous video demonstrates the two:====

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Social Cognitive Theory
One aspect of the Social Cognitive Theory which resonates loudly within the Human Resources field is modeling. From onboarding (the hiring/welcome process for new staff members) to training (acquainting and teaching someone the new job) to conducting business, modeling is constantly happening. At all levels of the organizational hierarchy, people model behavior to others--to new hires, to peers, to direct reports. As our class text points out, verbalizing one behavior while modeling another can be extremely damaging. Recent examples of this in the U.S. include Enron, Fannie Mae, WorldCom, Bernie Madoff, and others. An interesting article on ethics and Social Cognitive Theory is:

Luthans, F., & Stajkovic, A. D. (1997, Spring). Business Ethics across Cultures: A Social Cognitive Model. //Journal of World Business//, //32//(1), 17. Retrieved from []

This is a particularly good article as it incorporates a multicultural view of business ethics and the Social Cognitive Model.